The Mailer Review/Volume 5, 2011/Hemingway and Women at the Front: Blowing Bridges in The Fifth Column, For Whom the Bell Tolls, and Other Works: Difference between revisions
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Why love over war in the novel and war over love in the play? Independent critical discussions of the two works point to several explanations, including differing composition circumstances, differing perceptions of the wars’ meanings, and differing characterizations of the female protagonists. These three reasons deserve brief discussion here because they point to an additional issue that has not been discussed in this context, that of the increasing breakdown of the boundary between the foundational western categories of “home front” and “war front.” This breakdown had two causes. One cause was the increasing penetration of the home front by so-called total war, which was enabled by changing military technology and a concomitant changing ethic of war. Another cause was the increasing penetration of the war front by women in various professional roles—a change less abstract, more personalized, than the first. As home front and war front became increasingly difficult to distinguish, confusion and anger inevitably resulted. | Why love over war in the novel and war over love in the play? Independent critical discussions of the two works point to several explanations, including differing composition circumstances, differing perceptions of the wars’ meanings, and differing characterizations of the female protagonists. These three reasons deserve brief discussion here because they point to an additional issue that has not been discussed in this context, that of the increasing breakdown of the boundary between the foundational western categories of “home front” and “war front.” This breakdown had two causes. One cause was the increasing penetration of the home front by so-called total war, which was enabled by changing military technology and a concomitant changing ethic of war. Another cause was the increasing penetration of the war front by women in various professional roles—a change less abstract, more personalized, than the first. As home front and war front became increasingly difficult to distinguish, confusion and anger inevitably resulted. | ||
Hemingway’s significance as a cultural icon reveals itself in his own confusion at this breakdown of boundaries. On the one hand, he repeatedly expressed anger at the impersonal forces of technology that characterize the “strange new kind of war” represented in all his war fiction.{{efn|For an extended discussion of Hemingway’s attitude toward the transformation of traditional warfare by modern technology, see {{ | Hemingway’s significance as a cultural icon reveals itself in his own confusion at this breakdown of boundaries. On the one hand, he repeatedly expressed anger at the impersonal forces of technology that characterize the “strange new kind of war” represented in all his war fiction.{{efn|For an extended discussion of Hemingway’s attitude toward the transformation of traditional warfare by modern technology, see {{harvtxttxt|Moreland|1969|pp=163–68}} ''Medievalist Impulse''.}} On the other hand, he also expressed anger at the strange new kind of woman who was invading the male war front, displacing his anger onto the personal behavior of individual women and expressing it dramatically by his characterization of his female protagonists. He thereby transformed geopolitical war into what he called “the great unending battle between men and women.”{{sfn|Baker|1969|p=481-482}} As Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar brilliantly explore in their ''No Man’s Land'' trilogy, the sexual struggle initiated by the suffrage movement of the mid-nineteenth century became “a key theme in late Victorian literature and ultimately a shaping element in modernist and post-modernist literature . . . [such that] writers increasingly represented women’s unprecedented invasion of the public sphere as a battle of the sexes.”{{sfn|Gilbert|Gubar|1988|loc=1:4}} {{pg|371|372}} Hemingway thus valorizes in ''Farewell'' the war nurse who abandons her military hospital for life as a wife at home in neutral Switzerland, whereas he repudiates in ''Fifth Column'' the female war correspondent who refuses to leave the war front of Madrid when her lover directs her to do so. Not one war but two—the geopolitical and the sexual—are thus fought in the pages of Hemingway’s works. | ||
The composition circumstances of the novel and play are markedly different. Hemingway wrote ''Farewell'' some ten years after World War I had ended in victory for the Allies. The years between the war’s conclusion and the novel’s composition provided time for reflection on the war’s meaning. Hemingway’s post-war novel offered the opportunity to call the war itself into question—in effect, to argue against the war while not endangering the chance of victory. In contrast, Hemingway wrote ''Fifth Column'' while living in war-ravaged Madrid at the Hotel Florida, some fifteen blocks from the front. Ronald Fraser sums up many first-person accounts in his oral history by noting that Madrid was “the only city where you could go to the front by tram,”{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=455}} citing an interview subject as remembering that conductors called out “To the front—five céntimos.”{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=265}} Peter Wyden notes that secret-police chief Alexander Orlov once told war correspondent Louis Fischer of ''The Nation'', “There is no front. Madrid is the front.”{{sfn|Wyden|1983|p=202}} The Hotel Florida was shelled over thirty times in the fall of 1937 while Hemingway was drafting his play, during the second and longest of his four wartime visits to Spain (completing a clean typescript manuscript titled ''A Play'' in Madrid on 23 November 1937, and revising the manuscript in Key West in the summer of 1938, between his third and fourth visits to Spain). Published in October 1938, the play was largely a propaganda vehicle designed to encourage American sympathy for the Republican cause, which might result in a change in American policy that would allow the sale of war material to Republican Spain. It was thus necessary that Philip Rawlings choose war over love, else the play would have seemed to support the American neutrality policy. | The composition circumstances of the novel and play are markedly different. Hemingway wrote ''Farewell'' some ten years after World War I had ended in victory for the Allies. The years between the war’s conclusion and the novel’s composition provided time for reflection on the war’s meaning. Hemingway’s post-war novel offered the opportunity to call the war itself into question—in effect, to argue against the war while not endangering the chance of victory. In contrast, Hemingway wrote ''Fifth Column'' while living in war-ravaged Madrid at the Hotel Florida, some fifteen blocks from the front. Ronald Fraser sums up many first-person accounts in his oral history by noting that Madrid was “the only city where you could go to the front by tram,”{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=455}} citing an interview subject as remembering that conductors called out “To the front—five céntimos.”{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=265}} Peter Wyden notes that secret-police chief Alexander Orlov once told war correspondent Louis Fischer of ''The Nation'', “There is no front. Madrid is the front.”{{sfn|Wyden|1983|p=202}} The Hotel Florida was shelled over thirty times in the fall of 1937 while Hemingway was drafting his play, during the second and longest of his four wartime visits to Spain (completing a clean typescript manuscript titled ''A Play'' in Madrid on 23 November 1937, and revising the manuscript in Key West in the summer of 1938, between his third and fourth visits to Spain). Published in October 1938, the play was largely a propaganda vehicle designed to encourage American sympathy for the Republican cause, which might result in a change in American policy that would allow the sale of war material to Republican Spain. It was thus necessary that Philip Rawlings choose war over love, else the play would have seemed to support the American neutrality policy. | ||
Perceptions about World War I and the Spanish Civil War were also markedly different. The causes of World War I were murky, the conduct of the war disconcerting because traditional ways of battle had been rendered obsolete, and the meaning of the Allied victory in this war of attrition was unclear. The only hope was that this was the war to end all wars—ironic, given that the Treaty of Versailles in effect set up the circumstances that led to World War II. Speaking for an entire generation, Hemingway’s Frederic {{pg|372|373}} Henry famously says, “I had seen nothing sacred, and the things that were glorious had no glory and the sacrifices were like the stockyards at Chicago if nothing was done with the meat except to bury it”{{sfn|Hemingway|1929|p=185}}—in short, a slaughter without meaning or higher purpose.{{efn|Hemingway draws an equivalent relationship between the Chicago slaughterhouse and World War I, and then between the Spanish bullfight and the knightly tournament. He deconstructs the seeming equality of these sets of terms, revealing the hierarchical relationship that always already obtains, the first set of terms being subordinated to the second set of terms. For an argument as to the central significance of these terms to an interpretation of ''Farewell'', see {{ | Perceptions about World War I and the Spanish Civil War were also markedly different. The causes of World War I were murky, the conduct of the war disconcerting because traditional ways of battle had been rendered obsolete, and the meaning of the Allied victory in this war of attrition was unclear. The only hope was that this was the war to end all wars—ironic, given that the Treaty of Versailles in effect set up the circumstances that led to World War II. Speaking for an entire generation, Hemingway’s Frederic {{pg|372|373}} Henry famously says, “I had seen nothing sacred, and the things that were glorious had no glory and the sacrifices were like the stockyards at Chicago if nothing was done with the meat except to bury it”{{sfn|Hemingway|1929|p=185}}—in short, a slaughter without meaning or higher purpose.{{efn|Hemingway draws an equivalent relationship between the Chicago slaughterhouse and World War I, and then between the Spanish bullfight and the knightly tournament. He deconstructs the seeming equality of these sets of terms, revealing the hierarchical relationship that always already obtains, the first set of terms being subordinated to the second set of terms. For an argument as to the central significance of these terms to an interpretation of ''Farewell'', see {{harvtxttxt|Moreland|1969}}.}} As such, Frederic Henry is justified in making his famous “separate peace.”{{sfn|Hemingway|1929|p=243}} | ||
In contrast, the Spanish Civil War was “a most passionate war,” {{sfn|Thomas|1961|p=616}} indeed a cause célèbre perceived as a fight for the soul of Spain and ultimately that of the world. Those who sympathized with the democratically elected Republican government of Spain regarded the war as a conflict between freedom and tyranny, offering an opportunity to stop fascism (most immediately in the person of General Franco and the rebellious Spanish Army, which was supported with material and men by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy). A war to determine who would govern Spain—in this regard “a conflict small enough to be comprehensible to individuals” {{sfn|Thomas|1961|p=616}}—it was more largely an ideological war, a war of competing belief systems. The Loyalists who supported the Republican government included a complicated coalition of Spanish and foreign communists, socialists, syndicalists, anarchists, and democratic liberals, ultimately subsumed into the Popular Front.{{efn|For a detailed analysis of the ideological positions of these various groups, and also for an analysis of the political in-fighting among them, see {{ | In contrast, the Spanish Civil War was “a most passionate war,” {{sfn|Thomas|1961|p=616}} indeed a cause célèbre perceived as a fight for the soul of Spain and ultimately that of the world. Those who sympathized with the democratically elected Republican government of Spain regarded the war as a conflict between freedom and tyranny, offering an opportunity to stop fascism (most immediately in the person of General Franco and the rebellious Spanish Army, which was supported with material and men by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy). A war to determine who would govern Spain—in this regard “a conflict small enough to be comprehensible to individuals” {{sfn|Thomas|1961|p=616}}—it was more largely an ideological war, a war of competing belief systems. The Loyalists who supported the Republican government included a complicated coalition of Spanish and foreign communists, socialists, syndicalists, anarchists, and democratic liberals, ultimately subsumed into the Popular Front.{{efn|For a detailed analysis of the ideological positions of these various groups, and also for an analysis of the political in-fighting among them, see {{harvtxt|Orwell|1980|p=46–71}}}} Moreover, both sides regarded the war as important not only in itself and for what it represented, but also for what it presaged—either the containment of fascism, or its expansion and a resultant world war. Everyone involved knew that the war’s outcome would profoundly matter to the course of history. To make a “separate peace” from the Spanish Civil War, as indeed England and France in effect had done via the Non-Intervention Pact and America via a revision of the Neutrality Act, would unwittingly encourage the triumph of fascism, the destruction unleashed by another world war, and the possible end of political freedom and self-determination in the modern world. In these terms, it is unthinkable that Philip Rawlings not commit himself to the fight “for the duration.” | ||
The attributes of the female protagonists of Hemingway’s two works also differ significantly, especially insofar as they reflect Hemingway’s attitudes toward the actual women on whom they were based. Catherine Barkley is based on Agnes von Kurowsky, Hemingway’s first love, a World War I nurse he asked to marry him during his convalescence under her care, who jilted him for an Italian artillery officer after Hemingway’s return to the American home front. The lyric passages of ''A Farewell to Arms'', especially in Switzer- land, reflect Hemingway’s love for Agnes, just as Catherine’s death (however {{pg|373|374}} tragic to Frederic) reflects Hemingway’s anger at Agnes’s betrayal, as does the bitter portrait of Luz in “A Very Short Story.” {{sfn|Hemingway|1966|p=1925}} | The attributes of the female protagonists of Hemingway’s two works also differ significantly, especially insofar as they reflect Hemingway’s attitudes toward the actual women on whom they were based. Catherine Barkley is based on Agnes von Kurowsky, Hemingway’s first love, a World War I nurse he asked to marry him during his convalescence under her care, who jilted him for an Italian artillery officer after Hemingway’s return to the American home front. The lyric passages of ''A Farewell to Arms'', especially in Switzer- land, reflect Hemingway’s love for Agnes, just as Catherine’s death (however {{pg|373|374}} tragic to Frederic) reflects Hemingway’s anger at Agnes’s betrayal, as does the bitter portrait of Luz in “A Very Short Story.” {{sfn|Hemingway|1966|p=1925}} | ||
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But the woman who goes willingly to war calls into question independently the boundary between women and war, between the private sphere of the home front and the public sphere of the war front. Perhaps that is why the Lincoln Battalion officer felt he had the right to rape Marion Merriman, simultaneously his commander’s wife and a corporal serving in what Marion herself called “woman-less war.”{{sfn|Merriman|1986|p=148}} And perhaps that is why, over the centuries, whenever women have approached the war front their activities have been marginalized and dismissed, rendered historically invisible, as in the case of the camp-following communities except insofar as they have been reduced to the single identity of prostitute. | But the woman who goes willingly to war calls into question independently the boundary between women and war, between the private sphere of the home front and the public sphere of the war front. Perhaps that is why the Lincoln Battalion officer felt he had the right to rape Marion Merriman, simultaneously his commander’s wife and a corporal serving in what Marion herself called “woman-less war.”{{sfn|Merriman|1986|p=148}} And perhaps that is why, over the centuries, whenever women have approached the war front their activities have been marginalized and dismissed, rendered historically invisible, as in the case of the camp-following communities except insofar as they have been reduced to the single identity of prostitute. | ||
While women have historically served as soldiers, until comparatively recently they have done so only by disguising themselves as men, and they have most often been discovered only after being wounded. Most important is that these women-disguised-as-men remain largely disguised in the pages of history. Those who succeeded in their disguises were neither identified {{pg|377|378}} nor counted; those who died were regarded as aberrations whose freakishness was buried with them; those who were wounded were removed behind the lines and warned not to return to the battle front.{{efn|For an account of two disguised female soldiers in the Spanish Civil War who were discovered only after being wounded, see {{ | While women have historically served as soldiers, until comparatively recently they have done so only by disguising themselves as men, and they have most often been discovered only after being wounded. Most important is that these women-disguised-as-men remain largely disguised in the pages of history. Those who succeeded in their disguises were neither identified {{pg|377|378}} nor counted; those who died were regarded as aberrations whose freakishness was buried with them; those who were wounded were removed behind the lines and warned not to return to the battle front.{{efn|For an account of two disguised female soldiers in the Spanish Civil War who were discovered only after being wounded, see {{harvtxt|Brome, 206–08}}. For an extended discussion of female soldiers in the American Civil War, see {{harvtxt|Leonard, 99–272}}.}} From the male perspective, the more palatable motivation for such behavior was the search for a lover or husband, while less palatable was a desire to fight for the cause directly on the battle front rather than indirectly on the home front. | ||
Atypically, in the early stages of the Spanish Civil War, Republican women fought openly beside men: | Atypically, in the early stages of the Spanish Civil War, Republican women fought openly beside men: | ||
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==Works Cited== | ==Works Cited== | ||
{{Refbegin|indent=1|20em}} | {{Refbegin|indent=1|20em}} | ||
* {{cite book|last=Baker|first=Carlos |date= |title=Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story|url= |location=New York |publisher=Avon, 1969 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book|last=Baker|first=Carlos |date= |title=Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story|url= |location=New York |publisher=Avon, 1969 |pages= |ref=harvtxt}} | ||
* {{cite book|last=Beevor|first=Antony |date= |title=The Spanish Civil War |url= |location=New York |publisher=Peter Bedrick Books, 1983 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book|last=Beevor|first=Antony |date= |title=The Spanish Civil War |url= |location=New York |publisher=Peter Bedrick Books, 1983 |pages= |ref=harvtxt}} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Brome|first=Vincent |date= |title=The International Brigades: Spain 1936-1939|url= |location=New York|publisher=William Morrow, 1966 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Brome|first=Vincent |date= |title=The International Brigades: Spain 1936-1939|url= |location=New York|publisher=William Morrow, 1966 |pages= |ref=harvtxt}} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Bullard |first=F. Lauriston |date= |title=Famous War Correspondents|url= |location=Boston |publisher=Little, Brown, 1914|pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Bullard |first=F. Lauriston |date= |title=Famous War Correspondents|url= |location=Boston |publisher=Little, Brown, 1914|pages= |ref=harvtxt}} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Coleman |first=Catherine |date= |chapter=Women in the Civil War |title=Heart of Spain: Robert Capa's Photographs of the Spanish Civil War |url= |location=New York |publisher=Aperture, 1999 |pages=43-51 |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Coleman |first=Catherine |date= |chapter=Women in the Civil War |title=Heart of Spain: Robert Capa's Photographs of the Spanish Civil War |url= |location=New York |publisher=Aperture, 1999 |pages=43-51 |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Fellner |first=Harriet |date= |title=Hemingway as Playwright: ''The Fifth Column'' |url= |location=Ann Arbor |publisher=UMI Research P, 1986 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Fellner |first=Harriet |date= |title=Hemingway as Playwright: ''The Fifth Column'' |url= |location=Ann Arbor |publisher=UMI Research P, 1986 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite interview |last=Fishman |first=Mo |title=Telephone interview |date=May 2001 }} | * {{cite interview |last=Fishman |first=Mo |title=Telephone interview |date=May 2001 }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Fraser |first=Ronald |date= |title=Blood of Spain: An Oral History of the Spanish Civil War |url= |location=New York |publisher=Pantheon, 1979 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Fraser |first=Ronald |date= |title=Blood of Spain: An Oral History of the Spanish Civil War |url= |location=New York |publisher=Pantheon, 1979 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Garrison |first=Nancy Scripture |date= |title=With Courage and Delicacy, Civil War on the Peninsula: Women and the U.S. Sanitary Commission |url= |location=Mason City, Iowa |publisher=Savas, 1999 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Garrison |first=Nancy Scripture |date= |title=With Courage and Delicacy, Civil War on the Peninsula: Women and the U.S. Sanitary Commission |url= |location=Mason City, Iowa |publisher=Savas, 1999 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Gavin |first=Lettie |date= |title=American Women in World War I: They Also Served |url= |location=Niwot, CO |publisher=UP of Colorado, 1997 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Gavin |first=Lettie |date= |title=American Women in World War I: They Also Served |url= |location=Niwot, CO |publisher=UP of Colorado, 1997 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite magazine |last=Gellhorn |first=Martha |date= |title=The Face of War |url= |location=New York |magazine=Atlantic Monthly P, 1986 |edition=3rd|pages= |access-date= |ref= | * {{cite magazine |last=Gellhorn |first=Martha |date= |title=The Face of War |url= |location=New York |magazine=Atlantic Monthly P, 1986 |edition=3rd|pages= |access-date= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Gellorn |first=Martha |author-mask=1 |date= |title=Travels with Myself and Another |url= |location=New York |publisher=Penguin, 1978 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Gellorn |first=Martha |author-mask=1 |date= |title=Travels with Myself and Another |url= |location=New York |publisher=Penguin, 1978 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last1=Gellhorn |first1=Martha |last2=Cowles |first2=Virginia |date=1946 |title=Love Goes to Press |editor-last=Spanier |editor-first=Sandra |location=Lincoln |publisher=U of Nebraska P, 1995 |ref= | * {{cite book |last1=Gellhorn |first1=Martha |last2=Cowles |first2=Virginia |date=1946 |title=Love Goes to Press |editor-last=Spanier |editor-first=Sandra |location=Lincoln |publisher=U of Nebraska P, 1995 |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last1=Gellhorn |first1=Martha |author-mask=1|last2=Cowles |first2=Virginia |title=Love Goes to Press |editor-last=Spanier |editor-first=Sandra |script-title=Afterword |location=Lincoln |publisher=U of Nebraska P, 1995 |pages=79-90 |ref= | * {{cite book |last1=Gellhorn |first1=Martha |author-mask=1|last2=Cowles |first2=Virginia |title=Love Goes to Press |editor-last=Spanier |editor-first=Sandra |script-title=Afterword |location=Lincoln |publisher=U of Nebraska P, 1995 |pages=79-90 |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last1=Gilbert |first1=Sandra M. |last2=Gubar |first2=Susan |date= |title=No Man's Land: The Place of the Woman Writer in the Twentieth Century |url= |location=New Haven |publisher=Yale UP, 1988-1994, 3 vols |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last1=Gilbert |first1=Sandra M. |last2=Gubar |first2=Susan |date= |title=No Man's Land: The Place of the Woman Writer in the Twentieth Century |url= |location=New Haven |publisher=Yale UP, 1988-1994, 3 vols |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Guttmann |first=Allen |date= |title=The Wound in the Heart: America and the Spanish Civil War |url= |location=New York |publisher=Macmillan, 1962 | * {{cite book |last=Guttmann |first=Allen |date= |title=The Wound in the Heart: America and the Spanish Civil War |url= |location=New York |publisher=Macmillan, 1962 | ||
|pages= |ref= | |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Hawks |first=Esther Hill |date= |title=A Woman Doctor's Civil War: Esther Hill Hawks' Diary |url= |location=Columbia |publisher=U of South Carolina, 1984 |pages= |editor-last=Schwartz |editor-first=Gerald |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Hawks |first=Esther Hill |date= |title=A Woman Doctor's Civil War: Esther Hill Hawks' Diary |url= |location=Columbia |publisher=U of South Carolina, 1984 |pages= |editor-last=Schwartz |editor-first=Gerald |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Hemingway |first=Ernest |date=1950 |title=Across the River and into the Trees |url= |location=New York |publisher=Scribner, 1978 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Hemingway |first=Ernest |date=1950 |title=Across the River and into the Trees |url= |location=New York |publisher=Scribner, 1978 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Hemingway |first=Ernest |author-mask=1 |date= |title=Ernest Hemingway: Selected Letters, 1917-1961 |url= |location=New York |publisher=Scribner, 1981 |editor-last=Baker |editor-first=Carlos |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Hemingway |first=Ernest |author-mask=1 |date= |title=Ernest Hemingway: Selected Letters, 1917-1961 |url= |location=New York |publisher=Scribner, 1981 |editor-last=Baker |editor-first=Carlos |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Hemingway |first=Ernest |author-mask=1 |title=A Farewell to Arms |year=1929 |url= |location=New York |publisher=Scribner, 1969 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Hemingway |first=Ernest |author-mask=1 |title=A Farewell to Arms |year=1929 |url= |location=New York |publisher=Scribner, 1969 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Hemingway |first=Ernest |author-mask=1 |title=The Fifth Column |chapter=The Fifth Column ''and Four Stories of the Spanish Civil War'' |year= |url= |location=New York |publisher=Scribner, 1969 |pages=3-85 |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Hemingway |first=Ernest |author-mask=1 |title=The Fifth Column |chapter=The Fifth Column ''and Four Stories of the Spanish Civil War'' |year= |url= |location=New York |publisher=Scribner, 1969 |pages=3-85 |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Hemingway |first=Ernest |author-mask=1 |title=For Whom the Bell Tolls |year=1940 |url= |location=New York |publisher=Scribner, 1968 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Hemingway |first=Ernest |author-mask=1 |title=For Whom the Bell Tolls |year=1940 |url= |location=New York |publisher=Scribner, 1968 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Hemingway |first=Ernest |author-mask=1 |title=Green Hills of Africa |year=1935 |location=New York |publisher=Scribner, 1963 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Hemingway |first=Ernest |author-mask=1 |title=Green Hills of Africa |year=1935 |location=New York |publisher=Scribner, 1963 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Hemingway |first=Ernest |author-mask=1 |title=By-Line: Ernest Hemingway |script-title="A New Kind of War" |year= |location=New York |publisher=Scribner, 1967 |pages=262-67 |editor-last=White |editor-first=William |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Hemingway |first=Ernest |author-mask=1 |title=By-Line: Ernest Hemingway |script-title="A New Kind of War" |year= |location=New York |publisher=Scribner, 1967 |pages=262-67 |editor-last=White |editor-first=William |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Hemingway |first=Ernest |author-mask=1 |date= |title=''The Fifth Column'' and Four Stories of the Spanish Civil War |chapter=Night Before Battle |url= |location=New York |publisher=Scribner, 1969 |pages=110-139 |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Hemingway |first=Ernest |author-mask=1 |date= |title=''The Fifth Column'' and Four Stories of the Spanish Civil War |chapter=Night Before Battle |url= |location=New York |publisher=Scribner, 1969 |pages=110-139 |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Hemingway |first=Ernest |author-mask=1 |date=1937 |title=A Play |url= |location=Box 1, Folder 3, Typescript carbon, Ernest Hemingway Manuscripts Collection. U of Delaware Library, Newark, Delaware |publisher= |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Hemingway |first=Ernest |author-mask=1 |date=1937 |title=A Play |url= |location=Box 1, Folder 3, Typescript carbon, Ernest Hemingway Manuscripts Collection. U of Delaware Library, Newark, Delaware |publisher= |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Hemingway |first=Ernest |author-mask=1 |date=1926 |title=The Sun Also Rises |url= |location=New York |publisher=Scribner, 1970 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Hemingway |first=Ernest |author-mask=1 |date=1926 |title=The Sun Also Rises |url= |location=New York |publisher=Scribner, 1970 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Hemingway |first=Ernest |author-mask=1 |date=30 June 1938 |title=Ken |chapter=Treachery in Aragon |url= |location=1.7 |publisher= |pages=26 |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Hemingway |first=Ernest |author-mask=1 |date=30 June 1938 |title=Ken |chapter=Treachery in Aragon |url= |location=1.7 |publisher= |pages=26 |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Hemingway |first=Ernest |author-mask=1 |date=9-10 June 1943 |title=Unpublished Letter to Martha Gellhorn |chapter=Outgoing Correspondence, 1943-1948 |url= |location=Box 45, Folder EH 1943 June. Hemingway Collection. John F. Kennedy Library, Boston, MA. |publisher= |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Hemingway |first=Ernest |author-mask=1 |date=9-10 June 1943 |title=Unpublished Letter to Martha Gellhorn |chapter=Outgoing Correspondence, 1943-1948 |url= |location=Box 45, Folder EH 1943 June. Hemingway Collection. John F. Kennedy Library, Boston, MA. |publisher= |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Hemingway |first=Ernest |author-mask=1 |date= |chapter=A Very Short Story |title=The Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway |url= |location=New York |publisher=Scribner, 1966 |pages=141-142 | * {{cite book |last=Hemingway |first=Ernest |author-mask=1 |date= |chapter=A Very Short Story |title=The Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway |url= |location=New York |publisher=Scribner, 1966 |pages=141-142 | ||
|ref= | |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Herbert |first=Melissa S. |date= |title=Camouflage Isn't Only for Combat: Gender, Sexuality, and Women in the Military |url= |location=New York |publisher=New York UP, 1998 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Herbert |first=Melissa S. |date= |title=Camouflage Isn't Only for Combat: Gender, Sexuality, and Women in the Military |url= |location=New York |publisher=New York UP, 1998 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Kert |first=Bernice |date= |title=The Hemingway Women |url= |location=New York |publisher=Norton, 1983 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Kert |first=Bernice |date= |title=The Hemingway Women |url= |location=New York |publisher=Norton, 1983 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Knightley |first=Phillip |date= |title=The First Casualty, From the Crimea to Vietnam: The War Correspondent as Hero, Propagandist, and Myth Maker |url= |location=New York |publisher=Harcourt, 1975 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Knightley |first=Phillip |date= |title=The First Casualty, From the Crimea to Vietnam: The War Correspondent as Hero, Propagandist, and Myth Maker |url= |location=New York |publisher=Harcourt, 1975 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Leonard |first=Elizabeth D. |date= |title=All the Daring of the Soldier: Women of the Civil War Armies |url= |location=New York |publisher=Norton, 1999 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Leonard |first=Elizabeth D. |date= |title=All the Daring of the Soldier: Women of the Civil War Armies |url= |location=New York |publisher=Norton, 1999 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Lynn |first=Kenneth |date= |title=Hemingway |url= |location=Cambridge |publisher= | * {{cite book |last=Lynn |first=Kenneth |date= |title=Hemingway |url= |location=Cambridge |publisher=harvtxtard UP, 1987 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Maher |first=Sister Mary Denis |date= |title=To Bind Up the Wounds: Catholic Sister Nurses in the U.S. Civil War |url= |location=Baton Rouge |publisher=Louisiana State UP, 1989 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Maher |first=Sister Mary Denis |date= |title=To Bind Up the Wounds: Catholic Sister Nurses in the U.S. Civil War |url= |location=Baton Rouge |publisher=Louisiana State UP, 1989 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Mathews |first=Joseph J |date= |title=Reporting the Wars |url= |location=Minneapolis |publisher=U of Minnesota P, 1957 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Mathews |first=Joseph J |date= |title=Reporting the Wars |url= |location=Minneapolis |publisher=U of Minnesota P, 1957 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Mayer |first=Holly A |date= |title=Belonging to the Army: Camp Followers and Community during the American Revolution |url= |location=Columbia |publisher=U of South Carolina P, 1996 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Mayer |first=Holly A |date= |title=Belonging to the Army: Camp Followers and Community during the American Revolution |url= |location=Columbia |publisher=U of South Carolina P, 1996 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last1=Merriman |first1=Marion |last2=Lerude |first2=Warren |date= |title=American Commander in Spain: Robert Hale Merriman and the Abraham Lincoln Brigade |url= |location=Reno |publisher=U of Nevada P, 1986 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last1=Merriman |first1=Marion |last2=Lerude |first2=Warren |date= |title=American Commander in Spain: Robert Hale Merriman and the Abraham Lincoln Brigade |url= |location=Reno |publisher=U of Nevada P, 1986 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Meyers |first=Jeffrey |date= |title=Hemingway: A Biography |url= |location=New York |publisher=Harper, 1985 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Meyers |first=Jeffrey |date= |title=Hemingway: A Biography |url= |location=New York |publisher=Harper, 1985 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Moon |first=Katharine H.S. |script-title="Military Prostitutes and the Hypersexualization of Militarized Women" |title=Gender Camouflage: Women and the Military |url= |location=New York |publisher=New York UP, 1999 |pages=209-222 |editor-last1=D'Amico |editor-first1=Francine |editor-last2=Weinstein |editor-first2=Laurie |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Moon |first=Katharine H.S. |script-title="Military Prostitutes and the Hypersexualization of Militarized Women" |title=Gender Camouflage: Women and the Military |url= |location=New York |publisher=New York UP, 1999 |pages=209-222 |editor-last1=D'Amico |editor-first1=Francine |editor-last2=Weinstein |editor-first2=Laurie |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Carolyn |date= |title=Gellhorn: A Twentieth-Century Life |url= |location=New York |publisher=Holt, 2003 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Carolyn |date= |title=Gellhorn: A Twentieth-Century Life |url= |location=New York |publisher=Holt, 2003 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Carolyn |author-mask=1 |date= |title=Selected Letters of Martha Gellhorn |url= |editor-last=Moorehead |editor-first=Carolyn |location=New York |publisher=Holt, 2006 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Carolyn |author-mask=1 |date= |title=Selected Letters of Martha Gellhorn |url= |editor-last=Moorehead |editor-first=Carolyn |location=New York |publisher=Holt, 2006 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Moreland |first=Kim |date= |title=A Farewell to Arms: Teaching Hemingway's ''A Farewell to Arms.'' ''World War I, and the 'stockyards at Chicago''' |url= |location=Kent |publisher=Kent State UP, 2008 |editor-last=Tyler |editor-first=Lisa |pages=85-97 |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Moreland |first=Kim |date= |title=A Farewell to Arms: Teaching Hemingway's ''A Farewell to Arms.'' ''World War I, and the 'stockyards at Chicago''' |url= |location=Kent |publisher=Kent State UP, 2008 |editor-last=Tyler |editor-first=Lisa |pages=85-97 |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Moreland |first=Kim |author-mask=1 |date= |title=The Medievalist Impulse in American Literature: Twain, Adams, Fitzgerald, and Hemingway |url= |location=Charlottesville |publisher=UP of Virginia, 1996 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Moreland |first=Kim |author-mask=1 |date= |title=The Medievalist Impulse in American Literature: Twain, Adams, Fitzgerald, and Hemingway |url= |location=Charlottesville |publisher=UP of Virginia, 1996 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Nakjavani |first=Erik |date= |title=''Hemingway's'' The Fifth Column ''and the Question of Ideology'' |url= |location=North Dakota |publisher=Quarterly 60.2, 1992 |pages=159-184 |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Nakjavani |first=Erik |date= |title=''Hemingway's'' The Fifth Column ''and the Question of Ideology'' |url= |location=North Dakota |publisher=Quarterly 60.2, 1992 |pages=159-184 |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Oates |first=Stephen B. |title=A Woman of Valor: Clara Barton and the Civil War |location=New York |publisher=Macmillan, 1994 |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Oates |first=Stephen B. |title=A Woman of Valor: Clara Barton and the Civil War |location=New York |publisher=Macmillan, 1994 |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Orwell |first=George |date=1938 |title=Homage to Catalonia |url= |location=New York |publisher= | * {{cite book |last=Orwell |first=George |date=1938 |title=Homage to Catalonia |url= |location=New York |publisher=harvtxtest P, 1980 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Prago |first=Albert |date= |title=Our Fight: Writings by Veterans of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade, Spain 1936-1939 |script-title="Women in Franco's Prisons" |url= |location=New York |publisher=Monthly Review P, 1987 |editor-last1=Bessie |editor-first1=Alvah |editor-last2=Prago |editor-first2=Albert |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Prago |first=Albert |date= |title=Our Fight: Writings by Veterans of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade, Spain 1936-1939 |script-title="Women in Franco's Prisons" |url= |location=New York |publisher=Monthly Review P, 1987 |editor-last1=Bessie |editor-first1=Alvah |editor-last2=Prago |editor-first2=Albert |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Pryor |first=Elizabeth Brown |date= |title=Clara Barton: Professional Angel |url= |location=Philadelphia |publisher=U of Pennsylvania P, 1987 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Pryor |first=Elizabeth Brown |date= |title=Clara Barton: Professional Angel |url= |location=Philadelphia |publisher=U of Pennsylvania P, 1987 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Reeves |first=Connie L. |date= |title=Gender Camouflage: Women and the Military |script-title="Invisible Soldiers: Military Nurses" |url= |location=New York |publisher=New York UP, 1999 |editor-last1=D'Amico |editor-first1=Francine |editor-last2=Weinstein |editor-first2=Laurie |pages=15-30 |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Reeves |first=Connie L. |date= |title=Gender Camouflage: Women and the Military |script-title="Invisible Soldiers: Military Nurses" |url= |location=New York |publisher=New York UP, 1999 |editor-last1=D'Amico |editor-first1=Francine |editor-last2=Weinstein |editor-first2=Laurie |pages=15-30 |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Reynolds |first=Michael |date= |title=Hemingway: The 1930s |url= |location=New York |publisher=Norton, 1997 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Reynolds |first=Michael |date= |title=Hemingway: The 1930s |url= |location=New York |publisher=Norton, 1997 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Rolfe |first=Edwin |date= |title=Edwin Rolfe: Collected Poems |url= |location=Urbana |publisher=U of Illinois P |editor-last1=Nelson |editor-first1=Cary |editor-last2=Hendricks |editor-first2=Jefferson |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Rolfe |first=Edwin |date= |title=Edwin Rolfe: Collected Poems |url= |location=Urbana |publisher=U of Illinois P |editor-last1=Nelson |editor-first1=Cary |editor-last2=Hendricks |editor-first2=Jefferson |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Rollyson |first=Carl |date= |title=Nothing Ever Happens to the Brave: The Story of Martha Gellhorn |url= |location=New York |publisher=St. Martin's, 1990 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Rollyson |first=Carl |date= |title=Nothing Ever Happens to the Brave: The Story of Martha Gellhorn |url= |location=New York |publisher=St. Martin's, 1990 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Sorel |first=Nancy Caldwell |date= |title=The Women Who Wrote the War |url= |location=New York |publisher=Arcade, 1999 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Sorel |first=Nancy Caldwell |date= |title=The Women Who Wrote the War |url= |location=New York |publisher=Arcade, 1999 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Spanier |first=Sandra, ed |title=Love Goes to Press. ''By Martha Gellhorn and Virginia Cowles'' |chapter=Afterword |location=Lincoln |publisher=U of Nebraska P, 1995 |pages=79-90 |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Spanier |first=Sandra, ed |title=Love Goes to Press. ''By Martha Gellhorn and Virginia Cowles'' |chapter=Afterword |location=Lincoln |publisher=U of Nebraska P, 1995 |pages=79-90 |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Stein |first=M. L. |title=Under Fire: The Story of American War Correspondents |location=New York |publisher=Simon & Schuster, 1968 |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Stein |first=M. L. |title=Under Fire: The Story of American War Correspondents |location=New York |publisher=Simon & Schuster, 1968 |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Hugh |date= |title=The Spanish Civil War |url= |location=New York |publisher=Harper, 1961 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Hugh |date= |title=The Spanish Civil War |url= |location=New York |publisher=Harper, 1961 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Toral |first=Maria Teresa |date= |title=Our Fight: Writings by Veterans of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade, Spain 1936-1939 |script-title="A Long Night" |url= |location=New York |translator-last=Prago |translator-first=Albert |editor-last1=Bessie |editor-first1=Alvah |editor-last2=Prago |editor-first2=Albert |publisher=Monthly Review P, 1987 |pages=305-309 |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Toral |first=Maria Teresa |date= |title=Our Fight: Writings by Veterans of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade, Spain 1936-1939 |script-title="A Long Night" |url= |location=New York |translator-last=Prago |translator-first=Albert |editor-last1=Bessie |editor-first1=Alvah |editor-last2=Prago |editor-first2=Albert |publisher=Monthly Review P, 1987 |pages=305-309 |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Trogdon |first=Robert, ed |date= |title=Ernest Hemingway: A Literary Reference |url= |location=New York |publisher=Carroll and Graf, 1999 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Trogdon |first=Robert, ed |date= |title=Ernest Hemingway: A Literary Reference |url= |location=New York |publisher=Carroll and Graf, 1999 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last1=Villard |first1=Henry S. |last2=Nagel |first2=James |title=Hemingway in Love and War: The Lost Diary of Agnes Von Kurowsky |location=New York |publisher=Hyperion, 1989 |ref= | * {{cite book |last1=Villard |first1=Henry S. |last2=Nagel |first2=James |title=Hemingway in Love and War: The Lost Diary of Agnes Von Kurowsky |location=New York |publisher=Hyperion, 1989 |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Weitz |first=Margaret Collins |date= |title=Sisters in the Resistance: How Women Fought to Free France, 1940-1945 |url= |location=New York |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, 1995 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Weitz |first=Margaret Collins |date= |title=Sisters in the Resistance: How Women Fought to Free France, 1940-1945 |url= |location=New York |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, 1995 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Whiting |first=Charles |date= |title=Papa Goes to War: Ernest Hemingway in Europe, 1944-1945 |url= |location=Phoeniz Mill, UK |publisher=Sutton, 1999 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Whiting |first=Charles |date= |title=Papa Goes to War: Ernest Hemingway in Europe, 1944-1945 |url= |location=Phoeniz Mill, UK |publisher=Sutton, 1999 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite interview |last=Wolff |first=Milton |title=Telephone interview |date=May 2001 }} | * {{cite interview |last=Wolff |first=Milton |title=Telephone interview |date=May 2001 }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Wormeley |first=Katharine Prescott |date=1889 |title=The Other Side of War: On the Hospital Transports with the Army of the Potomac |url= |location=Gansevoort, New York |publisher=Comer House Historical Publications, 1998 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Wormeley |first=Katharine Prescott |date=1889 |title=The Other Side of War: On the Hospital Transports with the Army of the Potomac |url= |location=Gansevoort, New York |publisher=Comer House Historical Publications, 1998 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Wyden |first=Peter |date= |title=The Passionate War: The Narrative History of the Spanish War, 1936-1939 |url= |location=New York |publisher=Simon and Schuster, 1983 |pages= |ref= | * {{cite book |last=Wyden |first=Peter |date= |title=The Passionate War: The Narrative History of the Spanish War, 1936-1939 |url= |location=New York |publisher=Simon and Schuster, 1983 |pages= |ref=harvtxt }} | ||
{{Refend}} | {{Refend}} | ||