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{{DISPLAYTITLE:The Beatster, the White Negro, and the Evolution of the Hipster in ''Fight Club''}} | {{DISPLAYTITLE:<span style="font-size:22px;">The Mailer Review/Volume 9, 2015/</span>The Beatster, the White Negro, and the Evolution of the Hipster in ''Fight Club''}} | ||
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{{byline|last=Mosser|first=Jason | {{byline|last=Mosser|first=Jason|abstract=Out of the chaos and destruction of World War II emerged the hipster, a figure variously represented in works such as John Clellon Holmes’, ''Go'', which is about the group of figures at the center of the Beat Generation: Lawrence Lipton’s ''The Holy Barbarians'', a sociological study of the lives of some West Coast hipsters; and Norman Mailer’s essay “The White Negro” (1957), in which he introduced his titular existential anti-hero. The White Negro is a cultural icon who may or may not have existed in reality as Mailer described him: was he a true composite of certain marginalized characters, or was he merely a projection of Mailer’s own racial and sexual fantasies about African-Americans and their relation to white, middle-class intellectuals like himself. The Beatster was a teahead or junkie, jazz musician or aficionado, artist or intellectual, sexual adventurer or deviant, and Buddhist or spiritual seeker, in many ways mirroring Mailer’s hipster but without the violence.|url=https://prmlr.us/mr10moss}} | ||
Out of the chaos and destruction of World War II emerged the hipster, a figure variously represented in works such as John Clellon Holmes’ ''roman à clef'', ''Go'' (1952) about the group of figures at the center of the Beat Generation: Lawrence Lipton’s ''The Holy Barbarians'' (1959), a sociological study of the lives of some West Coast hipsters; and Norman Mailer’s essay “The White Negro” (1957), in which he introduced his titular existential anti-hero. In ''Hip: The History'', John Leland traces the origins of Hip to the colonial era when through the institution of slavery Africans and Europeans first began to engage one another, the Africans becoming more Europeanized as the Europeans became more Africanized. Leland identifies as other proto-hipster scenes the New England Transcendentalists, the Lost Generation, the Harlem Renaissance, and the Greenwich Village Bohemians, all superseded by the bi-coastal hipster of the 1940s-60s best exemplified by those cats we call the Beat Generation for which, as Michael Lennon states in his recent biography of Mailer (2013), “The White Negro” became the philosophical foundation as Kerouac’s ''On the Road'' (1957) represented the fictional and Ginsberg’s “Howl” (1956) the poetic.{{sfn|Lennon|2013|p=239}} | Out of the chaos and destruction of World War II emerged the hipster, a figure variously represented in works such as John Clellon Holmes’ ''roman à clef'', ''Go'' (1952) about the group of figures at the center of the Beat Generation: Lawrence Lipton’s ''The Holy Barbarians'' (1959), a sociological study of the lives of some West Coast hipsters; and Norman Mailer’s essay “The White Negro” (1957), in which he introduced his titular existential anti-hero. In ''Hip: The History'', John Leland traces the origins of Hip to the colonial era when through the institution of slavery Africans and Europeans first began to engage one another, the Africans becoming more Europeanized as the Europeans became more Africanized. Leland identifies as other proto-hipster scenes the New England Transcendentalists, the Lost Generation, the Harlem Renaissance, and the Greenwich Village Bohemians, all superseded by the bi-coastal hipster of the 1940s-60s best exemplified by those cats we call the Beat Generation for which, as Michael Lennon states in his recent biography of Mailer (2013), “The White Negro” became the philosophical foundation as Kerouac’s ''On the Road'' (1957) represented the fictional and Ginsberg’s “Howl” (1956) the poetic.{{sfn|Lennon|2013|p=239}} | ||
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Despite Mailer’s rhetorical identification with the hipster, competing discourses have called his character and his characterization into question. The White Negro is a cultural icon who may or may not have existed in reality as Mailer described him: was he a true composite of certain marginalized characters, or was he merely a projection of Mailer’s own racial and sexual fantasies about African-Americans and their relation to white, middle-class intellectuals like himself? Stanley T. Gutman claims that Mailer himself was “never a hipster,”{{sfn|Gutman|1975|p=67}} and Robert Solotaroff adds that Mailer’s hipster was an “improbable figure,”{{sfn|Solotaroff|1974|p=89}} while Joe Wenke argues that speculation about the existence of the real-life hipster “misses the point”{{sfn|Wenke|2014|p=67}} which in his estimation was to create a mythic, Adamic figure who would allow Mailer to “formulate a significant response to the threat of totalitarianism.”{{sfn|Wenke|2014|p=68}} More recently, Preston Whaley declares that the White Negro is simply a “caricature that does not exist.”{{sfn|Whaley|2004|p=41}} For their part, Kerouac and Ginsberg disapproved of Mailer’s construction of the hipster as one who embraced violence as a means to achieve existential transcendence. Their version of the hipster, a.k.a. the Beatster, was a figure beaten down and outcast by a conformist, militaristic, materialistic culture and in search of beatific ecstasy. The Beatster was a teahead or junkie, jazz musician or aficionado, artist or intellectual, sexual adventurer or deviant, and Buddhist or spiritual seeker, in many ways mirroring Mailer’s hipster but without the violence. Both the White Negro and the Beatster romanticized (and stereotyped) African-Americans as wise primitives, or, as Wenke puts it, “latter-day noble savage[s].”{{sfn|Wenke|2014|p=74}} The White Negro and the Beats saw themselves as people living on the ruins of a civilization, the fellaheen, in Spengler’s terms. In the shadow of the horrors of the Holocaust and of the Cold War threat of nuclear annihilation they shared an apocalyptic vision. And just as Mailer conceived of the White Negro in exclusively and characteristically masculine terms, the Beatster scene was about male bonding based on a shared rejection of square middle class values, even though, as Alan Petigny writes in “Norman Mailer, ‘The White Negro,’ and New Conceptions of the Self in Postwar America,” the 1950s was a less repressed and more liberated decade than we tend to think. | Despite Mailer’s rhetorical identification with the hipster, competing discourses have called his character and his characterization into question. The White Negro is a cultural icon who may or may not have existed in reality as Mailer described him: was he a true composite of certain marginalized characters, or was he merely a projection of Mailer’s own racial and sexual fantasies about African-Americans and their relation to white, middle-class intellectuals like himself? Stanley T. Gutman claims that Mailer himself was “never a hipster,”{{sfn|Gutman|1975|p=67}} and Robert Solotaroff adds that Mailer’s hipster was an “improbable figure,”{{sfn|Solotaroff|1974|p=89}} while Joe Wenke argues that speculation about the existence of the real-life hipster “misses the point”{{sfn|Wenke|2014|p=67}} which in his estimation was to create a mythic, Adamic figure who would allow Mailer to “formulate a significant response to the threat of totalitarianism.”{{sfn|Wenke|2014|p=68}} More recently, Preston Whaley declares that the White Negro is simply a “caricature that does not exist.”{{sfn|Whaley|2004|p=41}} For their part, Kerouac and Ginsberg disapproved of Mailer’s construction of the hipster as one who embraced violence as a means to achieve existential transcendence. Their version of the hipster, a.k.a. the Beatster, was a figure beaten down and outcast by a conformist, militaristic, materialistic culture and in search of beatific ecstasy. The Beatster was a teahead or junkie, jazz musician or aficionado, artist or intellectual, sexual adventurer or deviant, and Buddhist or spiritual seeker, in many ways mirroring Mailer’s hipster but without the violence. Both the White Negro and the Beatster romanticized (and stereotyped) African-Americans as wise primitives, or, as Wenke puts it, “latter-day noble savage[s].”{{sfn|Wenke|2014|p=74}} The White Negro and the Beats saw themselves as people living on the ruins of a civilization, the fellaheen, in Spengler’s terms. In the shadow of the horrors of the Holocaust and of the Cold War threat of nuclear annihilation they shared an apocalyptic vision. And just as Mailer conceived of the White Negro in exclusively and characteristically masculine terms, the Beatster scene was about male bonding based on a shared rejection of square middle class values, even though, as Alan Petigny writes in “Norman Mailer, ‘The White Negro,’ and New Conceptions of the Self in Postwar America,” the 1950s was a less repressed and more liberated decade than we tend to think. | ||
Like Hemingway before him, Mailer explored the meaning of masculinity throughout his life and early career and, following Hemingway, he equated masculinity with physical courage and grace under pressure, all in line with the Hemingway hero and the Hemingway code. Michael Shuman writes that Mailer “became the Hemingway for a new generation of writers, a model of masculine courage, adventurous physical appetite, and singular | Like Hemingway before him, Mailer explored the meaning of masculinity throughout his life and early career and, following Hemingway, he equated masculinity with physical courage and grace under pressure, all in line with the Hemingway hero and the Hemingway code. Michael Shuman writes that Mailer “became the Hemingway for a new generation of writers, a model of masculine courage, adventurous physical appetite, and singular style.”{{sfn|Shuman|2010|p=102}} And yet the concept of masculinity both writers shared was even in Hemingway’s day being challenged by urbanization, industrialization, and the feminization of American culture. Mailer voiced his early concern with contemporary notions of masculinity in his apologia for the negative construction of gay characters in his essay “The Homosexual Villain” and in his opposition to second-wave feminism, provoking attacks from Kate Millett and others, even though, as Phillip Sipiora writes in his preface to Mailer’s selected essays, Mailer “maintained long-term close friendships with feminists including Germaine Greer and Diana Trilling.”{{sfn|Sipiora|2013|pp=xx–iii}} During the years after WWII, the Beats, in their attitudes toward marriage, monogamy, and homosexuality, were reinventing what it means to be masculine, an alternative vision to that of the stereotypical, white, middle-class 1950s man who, as Robert Bly writes in ''Iron John'' (1992), “got to work early, labored responsibly, supported his wife, and admired discipline . . . many of [whose] qualities were strong and positive, but underneath the charm and bluff there was, and there remains, much isolation, deprivation, and passivity.”{{sfn|Bly|1992|p=1}} During the 1990s the Men’s Movement provided a new yet archetypal perspective on what many contemporary artists see as the crisis in modern masculinity. Bly traces this crisis to the Industrial Revolution and the resulting rise of urbanization and suburbanization when men began to abandon the farm and village to work in factories and offices only to come home tired, unfulfilled, and unresponsive to their wives and children. All this time, of course, mother was a constant presence, so children experienced motherlove but not much father-love. During the 1960s, Bly writes, “the waste and violence of the Vietnam war made men question whether they knew what an adult male really was.”{{sfn|Bly|1992|p=2}} At the same time, second-wave feminists were encouraging men to become more sensitized to women’s issues and to the feminine or anima in their own natures, a positive paradigm shift and necessary corrective to the limitations of the stereotypical 1950s male, yet Bly argues that these so-called “soft” males, sensitive, nurturing, and politically correct, were and are not happy;{{sfn|Bly|1992|p=2}} instead, they were and are enervated, passive, life-preserving but not life-giving. | ||
Another work appearing in the 1990s, Chuck Palahniuk’s ''Fight Club'' (1996), reflects some of the concerns shared by Bly and others involved in the Men’s Movement: the absence of positive, nurturing father figures in the narrator’s and Tyler’s lives, their alienation from and subversion of corporate culture, and their search for authentic values. Palahniuk’s narrator and his ''doppelgänger'' or alter ego, Tyler Durden, in many ways descend from the White Negro and the Beatsters, as well as from their children, the hippies of the 1960s’ counterculture, but more particularly from the Youth International Movement figure or Yippie and from the Weather Underground, all proposing alternative visions to the Great Society and, in the case of the Weathermen, practicing domestic terrorism. Against that background, in ''Fight Club'', Palahniuk introduces a new kind of hipster at the end of the twentieth century, the anarcho-terrorist Space Monkey, a character who reflects the modern anxiety about masculinity shared by Palahniuk’s predecessors.{{efn|The 1950s hipster evolved into the 1960s hippie, who mutated into the 1980s yuppie, but in the meantime the 70s punks arrived on the scene, echoing themes of anger, rebellion, and anarchy. Today’s hipsters are white, affluent, urban millennials who live in gentrified neighborhoods. Tech-savvy, stylistically eclectic, and politically progressive, they now share little of their Hip heritage. These are not Palahniuk’s hipsters.}} | Another work appearing in the 1990s, Chuck Palahniuk’s ''Fight Club'' (1996), reflects some of the concerns shared by Bly and others involved in the Men’s Movement: the absence of positive, nurturing father figures in the narrator’s and Tyler’s lives, their alienation from and subversion of corporate culture, and their search for authentic values. Palahniuk’s narrator and his ''doppelgänger'' or alter ego, Tyler Durden, in many ways descend from the White Negro and the Beatsters, as well as from their children, the hippies of the 1960s’ counterculture, but more particularly from the Youth International Movement figure or Yippie and from the Weather Underground, all proposing alternative visions to the Great Society and, in the case of the Weathermen, practicing domestic terrorism. Against that background, in ''Fight Club'', Palahniuk introduces a new kind of hipster at the end of the twentieth century, the anarcho-terrorist Space Monkey, a character who reflects the modern anxiety about masculinity shared by Palahniuk’s predecessors.{{efn|The 1950s hipster evolved into the 1960s hippie, who mutated into the 1980s yuppie, but in the meantime the 70s punks arrived on the scene, echoing themes of anger, rebellion, and anarchy. Today’s hipsters are white, affluent, urban millennials who live in gentrified neighborhoods. Tech-savvy, stylistically eclectic, and politically progressive, they now share little of their Hip heritage. These are not Palahniuk’s hipsters.}} | ||
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{{quote|The dark side of men is clear. Their mad exploitation of earth’s resources, devaluation . . . of women, and obsession with tribal warfare. . . . Genetic inheritance contributes to their obsessions, but also culture and environment. We have defective mythologies that ignore masculine depth of feeling, assign men a place in the sky instead of earth, teach obedience to the wrong power, work to keep men boys, and entangle both men and women in systems of industrial domination that exclude both matriarchy and patriarchy.{{sfn|Bly|1992|p=x}} }} | {{quote|The dark side of men is clear. Their mad exploitation of earth’s resources, devaluation . . . of women, and obsession with tribal warfare. . . . Genetic inheritance contributes to their obsessions, but also culture and environment. We have defective mythologies that ignore masculine depth of feeling, assign men a place in the sky instead of earth, teach obedience to the wrong power, work to keep men boys, and entangle both men and women in systems of industrial domination that exclude both matriarchy and patriarchy.{{sfn|Bly|1992|p=x}} }} | ||
In the wake of the industrial revolution, the men who had once stewarded nature began to wreak havoc upon it by dumping waste and chemicals into the environment. Palahniuk’s hipsters fantasize and romanticize a violent return to the primitive, imagining hunting wild game in a post-apocalyptic Times Square, just as Wenke claims that the White Negro’s “romantic rejection of society” signifies “a liberation of instinct to regain for oneself an identity of Adamic innocence.”{{sfn|Wenke| | In the wake of the industrial revolution, the men who had once stewarded nature began to wreak havoc upon it by dumping waste and chemicals into the environment. Palahniuk’s hipsters fantasize and romanticize a violent return to the primitive, imagining hunting wild game in a post-apocalyptic Times Square, just as Wenke claims that the White Negro’s “romantic rejection of society” signifies “a liberation of instinct to regain for oneself an identity of Adamic innocence.”{{sfn|Wenke|2014|p=72}} Here, though, we need to draw on Bly’s crucial distinction between the wild man and the savage man because the members of Fight Club and Project Mayhem seem to devolve from one to the other. Bly writes that the wild man, who has examined his wound, resembles a Zen priest or a shaman, he is fierce and confident, but, as Bly says, fierceness does have to be expressed as dominance or exploitation. The White Negro fights or kills as a means of achieving “catharsis which prepares for growth,”{{sfn|Mailer|1959|p=355}} and while the Fight Club members fight to win, what they feel after fighting is not boastful machismo, but enlightenment, an existential transcendence won through violence, purging, but only temporarily, those violent impulses civilized man cannot act upon. Contrasting the wild man to the savage man, however, Bly says that the latter “does great damage to soul, earth, and humankind; we can say that though the savage man is wounded he prefers not to examine it.”{{sfn|Bly|1992|p=x}} Tyler casts the narrator’s shadow, that part of himself he has suppressed but is still savage enough to wreak total destruction on the earth and on all human institutions.{{sfn|Palahniuk|2005|p=123}} The narrator says, “that’s how I felt. I wanted to destroy everything beautiful I’d never have. Burn the Amazon rain forests. I wanted to kill all the fish I couldn’t afford to eat. . . . I wanted the whole world to hit bottom.”{{sfn|Palahniuk|2005|p=124}} This apparent nihilism is really a thinly-veiled Romantic yearning for a return to an uncorrupted natural world. Project Mayhem ups the ante, redirecting the hipster’s violent impulses from fist-fights with each other to the destruction of property and the propagation of mass fear and confusion. What Mailer says about African-Americans being a “cultureless and alienated bottom of exploitable human material,”{{sfn|Mailer|1959|p=348}} Tyler says about the members of Project Mayhem being the “crap and slaves of history.”{{sfn|Palahniuk|2005|p=123}} By extension, they too are White Negroes, and, as Mailer’s hipster does and the Weathermen did, they vent their rage against the capitalist system. In another cruel irony, however, despite Tyler’s identification with the white male proletarians who subordinate themselves to Project Mayhem, this anarchoterrorist group mutates into a form of totalitarianism, against which Mailer wrote and fought for his entire career; further, Tyler, now assuming dictatorial powers, devalues their lives as inconsequential to the greater goal of reinventing the world and thus dehumanizes them. Once Tyler takes over, he increasingly distances himself from the narrator, or rather, the narrator, learning that Project Mayhem led to the deaths of both his boss and of his friend Bob and then being threatened himself with castration, distances himself from Tyler. | ||
Once ''Fight Club''’s narrator discovers that he has been leading a double life as himself and as Tyler and that Tyler has taken over, he decides to purge himself and to eliminate Tyler by blowing his own head off, but just as Tyler claims, neither he nor the narrator really die. The dramatic structure of Palahniuk’s novel is comic and its conclusion open-ended. Prankster to the end, the narrator ends up not in heaven, as he claims, but in a hospital. He had said that “We wanted to blast the world free of history,”{{sfn|Palahniuk|2005|p=124}} but the novel’s conclusion simply puts history on reset. From his hospital bed, the narrator says | Once ''Fight Club''’s narrator discovers that he has been leading a double life as himself and as Tyler and that Tyler has taken over, he decides to purge himself and to eliminate Tyler by blowing his own head off, but just as Tyler claims, neither he nor the narrator really die. The dramatic structure of Palahniuk’s novel is comic and its conclusion open-ended. Prankster to the end, the narrator ends up not in heaven, as he claims, but in a hospital. He had said that “We wanted to blast the world free of history,”{{sfn|Palahniuk|2005|p=124}} but the novel’s conclusion simply puts history on reset. From his hospital bed, the narrator says | ||
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==Works Cited== | ==Works Cited== | ||
{{refbegin| | {{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Bly |first=Robert |date=1992 |title=Iron John: A Book about Men |url= |location=New York |publisher=Vintage |pages= |isbn= |author-link= |ref=harv }} | * {{cite book |last=Bly |first=Robert |date=1992 |title=Iron John: A Book about Men |url= |location=New York |publisher=Vintage |pages= |isbn= |author-link= |ref=harv }} | ||
* {{cite journal |last=Boon |first=Kevin |date=2003 |title=Men and Nostalgia for Violence: Culture and Culpability in Chuck Palahniuk’s ''Fight Club''. |url=https://doi.org/10.3149%2Fjms.1103.267 |journal=The Journal of Men's Studies |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=267–276 |access-date=2019-05-08 }} | * {{cite journal |last=Boon |first=Kevin |date=2003 |title=Men and Nostalgia for Violence: Culture and Culpability in Chuck Palahniuk’s ''Fight Club''. |url=https://doi.org/10.3149%2Fjms.1103.267 |journal=The Journal of Men's Studies |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=267–276 |access-date=2019-05-08 |ref=harv}} | ||
* {{cite AV media |people=Fincher, David (Director) |date=1999 |title=Fight Club |trans-title= |medium=Motion Picture |language=en-US |url=https://amzn.to/2VSOdsg |access-date= |archive-url= |archive-date= |format=DVD |time= |location= |publisher=Fox 2000 Pictures |id= |isbn= |oclc= |quote= |ref= | * {{cite AV media |people=Fincher, David (Director) |date=1999 |title=Fight Club |trans-title= |medium=Motion Picture |language=en-US |url=https://amzn.to/2VSOdsg |access-date= |archive-url= |archive-date= |format=DVD |time= |location= |publisher=Fox 2000 Pictures |id= |isbn= |oclc= |quote= |ref={{SfnRef|Fincher|1999}} }} | ||
* {{cite journal |last=Friday |first=Kirster |date=2003 |title=A Generation of Men without History: ''Fight Club'', Masculinity, and the Historical Symptom |url=http://pmc.iath.virginia.edu/issue.503/13.3friday.html |journal=Postmodern Culture |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages= |access-date=2019-05-08 }} | * {{cite journal |last=Friday |first=Kirster |date=2003 |title=A Generation of Men without History: ''Fight Club'', Masculinity, and the Historical Symptom |url=http://pmc.iath.virginia.edu/issue.503/13.3friday.html |journal=Postmodern Culture |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages= |access-date=2019-05-08 |ref=harv }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Gutman |first=Stanley T. |date=1975 |title=Mankind in Barbary: The Individual and Society in the Novels of Norman Mailer |url=https://archive.org/details/mankindinbarbary0000gutm |location=Hanover, NH |publisher=The University Press of New England |author-link= |ref=harv }} | * {{cite book |last=Gutman |first=Stanley T. |date=1975 |title=Mankind in Barbary: The Individual and Society in the Novels of Norman Mailer |url=https://archive.org/details/mankindinbarbary0000gutm |location=Hanover, NH |publisher=The University Press of New England |author-link= |ref=harv }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Holmes |first=John Clellon |date=1997 |title=Go |url= |location=New York |publisher=Thunder's Mouth Press |pages= |isbn= |author-link= |ref=harv }} | * {{cite book |last=Holmes |first=John Clellon |date=1997 |title=Go |url= |location=New York |publisher=Thunder's Mouth Press |pages= |isbn= |author-link= |ref=harv }} | ||
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* {{cite book |last=Lennon |first=J. Michael |authormask=1 |date=2013 |title=Norman Mailer: A Double Life |url= |location=New York |publisher=Simon and Schuster |ref=harv }} | * {{cite book |last=Lennon |first=J. Michael |authormask=1 |date=2013 |title=Norman Mailer: A Double Life |url= |location=New York |publisher=Simon and Schuster |ref=harv }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Lipton |first=Lawrence |date=1959 |title=The Holy Barbarians |url= |location=New York |publisher=Messner |pages= |isbn= |author-link= |ref=harv }} | * {{cite book |last=Lipton |first=Lawrence |date=1959 |title=The Holy Barbarians |url= |location=New York |publisher=Messner |pages= |isbn= |author-link= |ref=harv }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Mailer |first=Norman |date=1968 |title=The Armies of the Night: History as a Novel, the Novel as History |location=New York |publisher=The New American | * {{cite book |last=Mailer |first=Norman |date=1968 |title=The Armies of the Night: History as a Novel, the Novel as History |location=New York |publisher=The New American Library |author-link=Norman Mailer |ref=harv }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Mailer |first=Norman | | * {{cite book |last=Mailer |first=Norman |author-mask=1 |date=1975 |title=The Fight |url= |location=Boston |publisher=Little, Brown |pages= |isbn= |author-link= |ref=harv }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Mailer |first=Norman | | * {{cite book |last=Mailer |first=Norman |author-mask=1 |date=1959a |chapter=The Homosexual Villain |title=Advertisements for Myself |url= |location=New York |publisher=G. P. Putnam's Sons |pages=222–227 |isbn= |author-link= |ref=harv }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Mailer |first=Norman | | * {{cite book |last=Mailer |first=Norman |author-mask=1 |date=1959 |chapter=The White Negro |title=Advertisements for Myself |url= |location=New York |publisher=G. P. Putnam's Sons |pages=337–358 |isbn= |author-link= |ref=harv }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Major |first=Clarence |date=1994 |chapter=Hip |title=Juba to Jive: A Dictionary of African-American Slang |url= |location=New York |publisher=Penguin Books |page=234 |isbn= |author-link= |ref=harv }} | * {{cite book |last=Major |first=Clarence |date=1994 |chapter=Hip |title=Juba to Jive: A Dictionary of African-American Slang |url= |location=New York |publisher=Penguin Books |page=234 |isbn= |author-link= |ref=harv }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=McKinley |first=Maggie |date=2015 |title=Masculinity and the Paradox of Violence in American Fiction, 1950-75 |url= |location=London |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |page= |isbn= |author-link= }} | * {{cite book |last=McKinley |first=Maggie |date=2015 |title=Masculinity and the Paradox of Violence in American Fiction, 1950-75 |url= |location=London |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |page= |isbn= |author-link= }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Millett |first=Kate |date=2016 |orig-year=1970 |title=Sexual Politics |chapter=Norman Mailer |url=https://archive.org/details/sexualpolitics000mill |location=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |pages=314–335 |author-link=w:Kate Millett |ref=harv }} | * {{cite book |last=Millett |first=Kate |date=2016 |orig-year=1970 |title=Sexual Politics |chapter=Norman Mailer |url=https://archive.org/details/sexualpolitics000mill |location=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |pages=314–335 |author-link=w:Kate Millett |ref=harv }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Palahniuk |first=Chuck |date=2005 |orig-year=1996 |title=Fight Club |url= |location=New York |publisher=W. W. Norton & Co. |pages= |isbn= |author-link= |ref=harv }} | * {{cite book |last=Palahniuk |first=Chuck |date=2005 |orig-year=1996 |title=Fight Club |url= |location=New York |publisher=W. W. Norton & Co. |pages= |isbn= |author-link= |ref=harv }} | ||
* {{cite journal |last=Petigny |first=Alan |date=2007 |title=Norman Mailer, 'The White Negro,' and New Conceptions of the Self in Postwar America |url=https://prmlr.us/mr07peti |journal=The Mailer Review |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=184–193 |access-date= }} | * {{cite journal |last=Petigny |first=Alan |date=2007 |title=Norman Mailer, 'The White Negro,' and New Conceptions of the Self in Postwar America |url=https://prmlr.us/mr07peti |journal=The Mailer Review |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=184–193 |access-date= |ref=harv}} | ||
* {{cite journal |last=Shuman |first=Michael |date=2010 |title=Norman vs. Ernest: Influence and Identity |url= |journal=The Mailer Review |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=90–103 |access-date= |ref=harv}} | |||
* {{cite book |contributor-last=Sipiora |contributor-first=Phillip |contribution=Editor's Preface |date=2013 |title=Mind of an Outlaw: Selected Essays |last=Mailer |first=Norman |url= |location=New York |publisher=Random House |pages=xvii–xxiv |isbn= |author-link= |ref=harv }} | * {{cite book |contributor-last=Sipiora |contributor-first=Phillip |contribution=Editor's Preface |date=2013 |title=Mind of an Outlaw: Selected Essays |last=Mailer |first=Norman |url= |location=New York |publisher=Random House |pages=xvii–xxiv |isbn= |author-link= |ref=harv }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Solotaroff |first=Robert |date= | * {{cite book |last=Solotaroff |first=Robert |date=1974 |title=Down Mailer's Way |url=https://archive.org/details/ert00robe |location=Urbana; London |publisher=University of Illinois Press |ref=harv }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Spengler |first=Oswald |date=1939 |title=The Decline of the West |url=https://archive.org/details/DeclineOfTheWestSpengler |location=New York |publisher=A. A. Knopf |pages= |isbn= |author-link= |ref=harv }} | * {{cite book |last=Spengler |first=Oswald |date=1939 |title=The Decline of the West |url=https://archive.org/details/DeclineOfTheWestSpengler |location=New York |publisher=A. A. Knopf |pages= |isbn= |author-link= |ref=harv }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Wenke |first=Joseph |date=2014 |orig-year=1987 |title=Mailer's America |url= |location=Hanover, NH; London |publisher=University Press of New England for University of Connecticut | * {{cite book |last=Wenke |first=Joseph |date=2014 |orig-year=1987 |title=Mailer's America |url= |location=Hanover, NH; London |publisher=University Press of New England for University of Connecticut |author-link= |ref=harv }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Whaley |first=Preston, Jr. |date=2004 |title=Blows Like a Horn: Beat Writing, Jazz, Style, and Markets in the Transformation of U.S. Culture |url= |location=Cambridge |publisher=Harvard University Press |pages= |isbn= |author-link= |ref=harv }} | * {{cite book |last=Whaley |first=Preston, Jr. |date=2004 |title=Blows Like a Horn: Beat Writing, Jazz, Style, and Markets in the Transformation of U.S. Culture |url= |location=Cambridge |publisher=Harvard University Press |pages= |isbn= |author-link= |ref=harv }} | ||
* {{cite book |last= | * {{cite book |last=Wolfe |first=Tom |date=1968 |title=The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test |url=https://archive.org/details/electrickoolaida0000wolf |location=New York |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux, Inc. |pages= |isbn= |author-link= |ref=harv }} | ||
{{refend}} | {{refend}} | ||
{{Review|state=expanded}} | {{Review|state=expanded}} | ||
{{DEFAULTSORT:Beatster, the White Negro, and the Evolution of the Hipster in Fight Club, The}} | |||
[[Category:Articles (MR)]] | [[Category:Articles (MR)]] | ||